There are numerous analytical techniques used in pharmaceutical analysis, each with its specific applications and advantages.
Some of the most commonly used techniques include:
1) Spectroscopy:
a) Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) Spectroscopy:
Analyzes the absorption of UV and visible light by molecules, providing information on concentration, purity, and molecular structure.
b) Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy:
Identifies functional groups and chemical bonds in molecules based on their vibrational frequencies.
c) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy:
Investigates the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei to determine molecular structure and identify compounds.
d) Mass Spectrometry (MS):
Determines the mass-to-charge ratio of ions to identify and quantify molecules in a sample.
2) Chromatography:
a) High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC):
Separates and quantifies components in a mixture using a liquid mobile phase and a stationary phase.
b) Gas Chromatography (GC):
Separates and analyzes volatile compounds using a gaseous mobile phase and a stationary phase.
c) Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC):
Separates components of a mixture on a coated solid support using a liquid mobile phase.
3) Electrophoresis:
a) Capillary Electrophoresis (CE):
Separates molecules based on their charge and size using an electric field in a capillary column.
b) Gel Electrophoresis:
Separates molecules, typically proteins or nucleic acids, based on their size and charge in a gel matrix under an electric field.
4) Titrimetry:
a) Acid-Base Titration:
Determines the concentration of an acid or base by neutralization with a standard solution of known concentration.
b) Redox Titration:
Involves the use of a reducing or oxidizing agent to determine the concentration of an analyte based on its redox properties.
5) Electroanalytical techniques:
a) Potentiometry:
Measures the potential difference between two electrodes in an electrochemical cell to determine the concentration of an analyte.
b) Voltammetry:
Analyzes the current-voltage relationship in an electrochemical cell to determine the concentration and identity of analytes.
6) Microscopy:
a) Optical Microscopy:
Uses visible light and lenses to magnify and examine the physical properties of small samples.
b) Electron Microscopy:
Utilizes a beam of electrons to magnify and study the structure and composition of samples at high resolution.
7) Thermal analysis:
a) Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC):
Measures the heat flow associated with phase transitions and chemical reactions in a sample.
b) Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA):
Monitors weight changes in a sample as a function of temperature, providing information on composition, purity, and thermal stability.