Substance P is an undecapeptide belonging to the tachykinin neuropeptide family. It functions as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. Substance P: Acts on NK1 receptors in CNS and peripheral tissues. Synthesis: Neurons: Primarily synthesized in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Release: Released from sensory nerve endings in response to pain and inflammation. Functions of Substance … Read more

Bradykinin is a nonapeptide that functions as a potent vasodilator and mediator of inflammation. It is part of the kallikrein-kinin system. Bradykinin Plays a key role in inflammation and blood pressure regulation. Synthesis: Prekallikrein Activation: Kallikrein converts high-molecular-weight kininogen to bradykinins. Regulation: Degraded by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), which is why ACE inhibitors increase bradykinins levels. Functions … Read more

Angiotensin refers to a family of peptides that play a critical role in regulating blood pressure, fluid balance, and electrolyte homeostasis. The most important member is Angiotensin II (Ang II). Synthesis and Activation: Renin Release: Produced by the kidneys in response to low blood pressure or low sodium levels. Angiotensinogen Conversion: Renin converts angiotensinogen (produced … Read more

Leukotrienes are eicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid via the lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway. Leukotrienes are primarily involved in immune and inflammatory responses. These three groups are collectively called eicosanoids, derived from arachidonic acid via the cyclooxygenase (COX) or lipoxygenase pathways. Major Leukotrienes: LTB4 (Leukotriene B4): Functions: Acts as a potent chemotactic agent, attracting neutrophils to sites … Read more

Thromboxanes are eicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid via the COX pathway, specifically from PGH2. Thromboxanes play significant roles in hemostasis and vascular function. These three groups are collectively called eicosanoids, derived from arachidonic acid via the cyclooxygenase (COX) or lipoxygenase pathways. Major Thromboxanes: TXA2 (Thromboxane A2): Functions: Promotes platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction, essential for blood … Read more

Prostaglandins act as autacoids, having diverse roles in inflammation, vascular function, and other processes. These three groups are collectively called eicosanoids, derived from arachidonic acid via the cyclooxygenase (COX) or lipoxygenase pathways. Prostaglandins are a group of physiologically active lipid compounds derived from arachidonic acid via the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway. Synthesis: Arachidonic Acid Release: Phospholipase … Read more

Serotonin (5-Hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter derived from the amino acid tryptophan. 5-HT (5-Hydroxytryptamine) (Serotonin) influences a wide range of physiological and behavioral processes. Synthesis: From the amino acid tryptophan by tryptophan hydroxylase and subsequent decarboxylation. Storage: High concentration in enterochromaffin cells in the gut, platelets, and in the CNS as a neurotransmitter. … Read more

Introduction to Hemodynamics and Electrophysiology of the Heart: Covers blood flow and cardiac electrical activity. Introduction to Hemodynamics and Electrophysiology of the Heart: Key to understanding cardiac output and rhythm regulation. Hemodynamics Definition Hemodynamics refers to the dynamics of blood flow, including how the heart pumps blood, how blood pressure is generated and regulated, and … Read more