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Construction and Working of Reference Electrodes

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Construction and Working of Reference Electrodes

Construction and Working of Reference electrodes are half-cells with a stable and well-defined electrode potential. These electrodes are used to provide a constant potential against which the potential of other electrodes can be measured. Common reference electrodes include the Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE), Silver-Silver Chloride Electrode (Ag/AgCl), and Calomel Electrode. 1.Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) as Construction … Read more

Carbachol

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Carbachol

Carbachol (Carbamoylcholine) is a cholinergic agonist that mimics the action of acetylcholine by stimulating both muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. Chemical Formula: C₆H₁₅ClN₂O₂ Mechanism of Action: Direct agonist at muscarinic and nicotinic Longer duration due to resistance to AChE. Uses of Carbachol: Used topically in glaucoma to reduce intraocular pressure. Also used to induce miosis during … Read more

Acetylcholine

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Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter a chemical messenger that plays a key role in both the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). It is involved in transmitting nerve impulses across synapses, particularly at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, and within the brain. Chemical Formula: C₇H₁₆NO₂⁺ Mechanism of Action: Mimics acetylcholine at muscarinic and … Read more

Dropping Mercury Electrode (DME)

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Dropping Mercury Electrode

The Dropping Mercury Electrode (DME) is commonly used in polarography and electrochemical techniques. It provides a clean, renewable surface for redox reactions, offering low background current and reproducibility. Construction of Dropping Mercury Electrode: Capillary Tube: A fine glass tube with an internal diameter of 10-50 µm through which mercury flows. The tube is mounted vertically … Read more

Applications of Polarography

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Applications of Polarography

Applications of Polarography is used for the quantitative and qualitative analysis of reducible or oxidizable substances in solutions. Trace Analysis in Applications of Polarography: Used for detecting and quantifying trace amounts of electroactive species (e.g., metal ions, organic compounds) with high sensitivity and selectivity. Environmental Monitoring in Applications of Polarography: Determines concentrations of heavy metals … Read more

Famotidine

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Famotidine

Famotidine is a second-generation H₂-receptor antagonist used to treat ulcers, GERD, and acid-related disorders. Structure of Famotidine It is a second-generation H₂-receptor antagonist characterized by a thiazole ring linked to a guanidine moiety and a difluoromethyl group. Chemical Formula: C₈H₉N₇O₂S₂ Mode of Action Famotidine competitively inhibits H₂ receptors on gastric parietal cells, leading to decreased … Read more

Rotating Platinum Electrode (RPE)

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Rotating Platinum Electrode

The Rotating Platinum Electrode (RPE) is used in electrochemical experiments, especially in rotating disk electrode (RDE) and rotating ring-disk electrode (RRDE) configurations. It provides enhanced mass transport for studying redox reactions, kinetics, and mass transfer. Construction of Rotating Platinum Electrode: Platinum Disk: A flat, polished platinum disk (1-10 mm in diameter) mounted on insulating material … Read more

Polarography

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Polarography

Polarography is an electroanalytical technique introduced by Jaroslav Heyrovsky in 1922. It measures the current-potential (I-V) relationship by applying a gradually increasing voltage to a working electrode in a solution containing the analyte. The current results from redox reactions at the electrode surface. Principle of Polarography Polarography is based on measuring current as a function … Read more

Liquorice (Triterpenoids)

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Liquorice (Triterpenoids)

General Introduction to Liquorice (Triterpenoids): Liquorice is a medicinal plant that is rich in triterpenoid saponins, particularly glycyrrhizin, which is responsible for its characteristic sweet taste and therapeutic properties. It has been used in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory, expectorant, and hepatoprotective effects. Synonyms of Liquorice (Triterpenoids) Common name: Licorice, Sweet root Scientific name: Glycyrrhiza … Read more

Introduction to Steroids, Cardiac Glycosides & Triterpenoids

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Steroids, Cardiac Glycosides & Triterpenoids

Introduction to Steroids, Cardiac Glycosides & Triterpenoids: Natural compounds with therapeutic roles. Introduction to Steroids, Cardiac Glycosides & Triterpenoids are bioactive natural compounds with crucial therapeutic roles in inflammation, heart disorders, and hormonal regulation. Steroids: Structure: Four fused rings (three six-membered, one five-membered). Functions: Membrane Structure: Cholesterol regulates membrane fluidity and permeability. Hormonal Roles: Includes … Read more